LiteratureLiteratureLiterature Literature Literature
‘Literature’ ‘Literature’ ‘Literature’ ‘Literature’ refers refers refers to literary literary literary productions productions productions productions productionsthat havehave artistic artistic value .As an art, literature literatureliterature literature is the oral oral and written writtenwritten form of words wordswords that aim aimto give pleasure pleasure pleasureand andto instruct, instruct, instruct, instruct,directly or indirectly .The termterm ‘literature’ ‘literature’ ‘literature’ ‘literature’ may mayalso alsostandstand stand forfor the writings writings writings of acountry countryor nation nation such as Turkish Turkish/Turcophone Turcophone TurcophoneLiterature, Literature, Literature, Literature, English English English/Anglophone Anglophone Literature LiteratureLiterature Literature and /or Russian Russian RussianLiterature Literature.
FictionFictionFiction andand NonNonNon-fiction
Fiction Fiction Fiction is the type type of bookbook or story story storywhichwhich is writtenwritten about about aboutimaginaryimaginary characters and events and not based on real peoplepeople and facts .Non -fiction fiction ,on the other hand, hand, hand,is writing writing writing that is about aboutreal realevents and facts, facts, rather than than stories storiesstories which which whichhave been invented .Common CommonCommonCommon forms forms of nonnon -fiction fiction are biographies, biographies, biographies, auto -biographies, biographies, biographies, biographies, works works of history, history, traveltravel and adventure adventure literature, literature, literature, philosophical philosophical philosophical philosophical treatises, treatises, treatises,letters, letters, journals, journals, journals, journals,memoirs, memoirs, interviews, interviews, diaries as well as essays essays essaysand articles articlesarticlesarticles on social, social, social, religious, political political political politicaland/or and/or literary literary literarytopics topics .

OralOral OralandandandWrittenWritten Written Written Literature Literature Literature Literature Literature
It may be misleading misleading to confine confine confinethe meaning of literature literature literature literatureto ‘anything ‘anything written’ written’ because because the existence existence of ‘oral oral literature literature literature literature ’ is undeniable undeniable undeniable undeniable .Oral Oral literature literature literatureis thethe product product of illiterate or semi semi-literateliterate literate societies societies societies societies .Asurprising surprisingsurprising surprising variety of oral oral literature literature literaturemaymay be found found foundboth both among among the ancient ancient peoples peoples and among among the peoples that that are mostly mostly primitiveprimitive primitive primitive with little or no written written written literature literature literature.The term ‘written written written literature’ literature’ literature’ is often often used to distinguish distinguish written written written works of literature literature literaturefrom from oral oral literature literature literature.
Common CommonCommon forms forms of oraloral literature literature literatureare heroic heroic epics, epics,epics, epics,songs in praise praiseof priests priests and/or and/or kings, kings, love song lyrics, lyrics,tales of adventure adventureadventure adventureand heroism, heroism, heroism,satire, satire, balladsballads and folk folk tales, tales,elegies, animal animal fables, fables, riddles, riddles, proverbs, proverbs, mythological mythological mythologicalstories stories stories of gods godsand/or and/or semi semi-gods gods.

EnglishEnglishEnglish English Literature Literature Literature Literature Literature
In its itssimplest simplest simplestform form English Englishliterature literature literature literatureis literature literature literature literaturewrittenwritten in English EnglishEnglishEnglish.It does does not notrefer refer referonly only to the literary literary literaryworks works produced producedin England England but butalsoalso to the works works created in the coloniescolonies colonies of the British British British BritishEmpire Empire Empire .In this respect, respect, respect, literary literary worksworks works of America, America, America, Canada, Africa, Africa,Africa, Africa,India, India, Australia Australia and manymany other other colonies which which whichare written writtenwritten in English, English, English, come cometogether under one umbrella umbrella :English English EnglishLiterature Literature Literature(also (also Anglophone Anglophone Literature) Literature) Literature) .

DenotationDenotationDenotationDenotation Denotation andandandConnotationConnotation Connotation Connotation
Denotation Denotation Denotation is aword’s word’s word’s word’s primary primarymeaning or dictionary dictionary dictionary dictionary definition definition definition .Connotation Connotation Connotation Connotation is the associations associations associations associations associations surrounding surrounding surrounding aword, word,word, as opposed to its itsliteral literal meaningmeaning meaning .Depending Depending Depending on thethe context, the connotation connotation connotation of awordword wordcan canchange the meaning meaning of asentence considerably considerably considerably .For example, the word word “lion” “lion” denotes denotes “a large wild wildanimal animal of the catcat family family with yellowishyellowish brown brown brownfur furwhich which whichlives lives in Africa Africa Africaand southern southern southernAsia Asia.” However, However,it may mayconnote connote someonesomeone someone who whois important, important, successful, successful, successful, successful, brave brave or powerful powerful powerful.
Literal Literal Literal LiteralandandandFigurativeFigurative FigurativeFigurativeFigurative Figurative Language LanguageLanguage Language
Literal Literal or denotative denotative denotative language language is the usage of words words wordswith their theiroriginal, original, original, basic meanings meanings or denotations denotations denotations .Figurative Figurative or connotative connotative connotative language language represents represents the use of associated associated associated associated meanings meanings meaningsof awordword wordor intentional departure departure departurefrom from literal literal literal or plain plainusage of language language language.

ExamplesExamplesExamplesExamplesExamplesExamples :
 The lionlionlionlionin the zoo zoolooked really sad sad.(literal/denotative (literal/denotative (literal/denotative (literal/denotative language) language)
 Jeremy Jeremy waswas alionlionlionlionon the battlegroundbattleground battleground battleground.(figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative language) language) language)
 The sunsunsunwas shining shining brightly brightly that day .(literal/denotative (literal/denotative (literal/denotative (literal/denotative language) language)
 I'veI've tried everything under the thesunsun on this stain,stain, stain, but butIjust can't can't can'tget rid of it .(figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative language language – idiomatic idiomatic idiomaticusage)
 ‘You’re ‘You’re ‘You’re my sunsunsun,’ he said said to his wife .(figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative language) language)
 Her father’s father’s heartheartheartheart disease disease diseasereally upsets Susan Susan Susan.(literal/denotative (literal/denotative (literal/denotative (literal/denotative language) language)
 It breaks breaks breaksmy heartheartheartheart to see him so unhappy unhappy .(figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative language) language)
 You're You're doing doing really really wellwell well-don’t don’t lose heart now now.(figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative (figurative/connotative language language language– idiomatic idiomatic idiomaticusage)

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Afigure figure figureof speech speech is aliterary literary literary literarydevice device devicethat employs employs employs language language languageto create aliterary literary literary effect effect .It is an expression which which whichuses words words wordsor phrases to mean meansomething something somethingdifferent different different from fromfromtheir theirordinary ordinary meaning meaning .There are avast vastnumber number of figures figures of speech speech used in literature literature literature.
Below, Below,you will willfind adetailed detailed list listof frequently frequentlyfrequently frequentlyused figures figures of speech speech and andliterary literary literarydevices devices.Please remember that figurative figurative figurative language language is NOT exclusive exclusive exclusive to literature literature literatureand andmaymay be found found foundeven even in our daily speech speech (as (aswhen when we say say‘I’m so hungry hungry hungryIcould eat ahorse horse .’) .Also, Also, pleaseplease pleaseremember remember remember that moremore morethan one figure figureof speech speech may maybe present even in asingle single single sentence .


ALLEGORYALLEGORYALLEGORYALLEGORY ALLEGORY
Allegory is afigure figureof speech speech through through which whichpersonifications personifications personifications of abstract qualitiesqualities qualities qualities are used to convey conveyamessage message .Allegories Allegories Allegories carry carry carryasecond second secondmeaning meaningalong alongwithwith withits itssurface surface meaningmeaning and in that they theymay be considered considered considered extended extended extended metaphors metaphors metaphors .An allegory allegoryis astory story storyin which which whichthe characters characters and events are symbols symbolssymbols symbolssymbolsthat stand stand for forideasideas about abouthuman human life or for forpolitical political or historical historical historical historical situations situations .
The underlying underlying underlying underlying meaning meaning has moral, social,social, social,social, social,religious, or political political political politicalsignificance, significance, significance, and characters characters are oftenoften personifications personifications personifications personifications personificationspersonifications of abstractabstract ideas as charity, charity, greed, greed, or envy .Thus an allegory is astory story storywith two meanings, meanings, aliteral literal meaning meaning and asymbolicsymbolicsymbolicsymbolic symbolicmeaning meaning .
 George Orwell’s Orwell’s Orwell’s AnimalAnimal Animal Farm is apolitical political political political allegory of events in Russia Russia and Communism Communism Communism.
 Bunyan’s Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Pilgrim’s Progress Progress Progress tellstells tellsthe story story storyof aman mannamed Christian Christian Christian Christian who whotravels from from the City City of Destruction Destruction Destruction Destruction to the Celestial Celestial Celestial City CityCity.Obviously,Obviously, Obviously, Obviously,the man mannamed Christian ChristianChristian is an allegory for foratypical typicaltypicaltypicaltypical Christian Christian person .On the theother hand, hand,thethetheCity CityCityof Destruction Destruction Destruction Destruction and the Celestial Celestial Celestial City City respectively respectively respectively represent represent the World and Heaven .

IRONYIRONYIRONYIRONY
Irony Ironyis acontrast contrast contrastbetween betweenbetween betweenappearance appearance appearance and reality .It includes includes includesan element element element of saying sayingsayingsaying or implying implying the thereverse reverseof or more than the theliteral literal literal meaning meaningof the thewordswords used used .
VERBALVERBALVERBALVERBAL VERBALIRONYIRONYIRONYIRONY
In verbal irony ironyironyone meaning meaning meaning is stated statedand adifferent, different,different,different, different, usually usually usuallyusuallyantithetical antithetical or opposite, opposite, meaning meaningmeaning is intended intended intended .Many authors use useirony irony ironyto heighten heighten the thedrama of unfolding unfolding unfolding eventsevents eventsevents.Also, Also,Also, pleaseplease pleaseremember remember remember rememberthat that verbal irony is atool for forsarcasmsarcasmsarcasmsarcasm sarcasm.
 YouYou say say“Oh, fantastic!” fantastic!” whenwhen whenthe thesituation situation situation is actually actually actuallyvery poor .
 YouYou cannot cannot watchwatch watchyour favourite TV programme programme programmebecausebecause becauseyouyou have have lots of homework, homework, homework,homework, and youyou say say“I just justlove lots of homework homework homeworkhomework whenwhen whenmy favourite favourite favourite programme programme programmeis on .”
 YouYou are very uncomfortable uncomfortable uncomfortable uncomfortableand youyou say say“This “This chair is as comfortable comfortable comfortable as sitting sitting sitting sittingon nails nails .”
 YouYou get aparking parking parking fine and say say“Thanks “Thanks for forthe theticket ticketofficer officer officeryouyou just made my day!”
 YouYou are supposed supposed supposed to readread the theseven -hundred -page -longlong financial financial report of ahuge huge company companycompany companyand say say“I can’t can’t waitwait to read the theseven hundred page report .”
 Looking Looking Looking at her herson's son's messy messy messyroom, room, Mom Momsays, says,says, "Wow,"Wow, "Wow,youyou could could winwin an award award for forcleanliness!" cleanliness!" cleanliness!"cleanliness!"

SITUATIONAL IRONY (or (orIrony IronyIrony of Situation)Situation)Situation)
Situational Situational irony exists exists when when the actual actual outcome outcome of asituation situation situation is the opposite oppositeoppositeof what what is expected expected .
 Apolice police officer officer is getting getting getting arrested arrested arrested .
 Afire station station station is burning burning burning down down.
 You go to adietician dietician and he/she he/she is very veryfat .
 The Turkish Turkishidiom :“ya ğmurdan murdan kaçarken kaçarken kaçarken doluya doluya tutulmak tutulmak”
 The Turkish Turkishproverb proverb:“Terzi “Terzi “Terzi kendi sökü söküğünüdikemez dikemez .”